Question: What are the different MCA models that can be used?

Answer: A combination of variables have been used consistently by different organizations to functionally create Marine Conservation Agreement models; the variables include the types of agreements, grantors, rights and interests, acquisition, benefits, and lands and resources.

Various forms, or models, of Marine Conservation Agreements (MCAs) have been applied by different organizations around the world. The models have similarities and differences, pros and cons, and applicability versus non-applicability issues.

The comparison table and brief summaries for the MCA models below are intended to give organizations a general idea of how MCAs might be constructed and applied. Exactly which type or variation of MCA model best applies to any particular project must be determined on a case-by-case basis. Clicking on the thumbnail image at right will open a pdf version of the table in a separate window.

Comparison Table of MCA Models

Conservation International

Conservation International (CI) is a large, global environmental non-governmental organization that operates primarily in tropical developing countries. CI began its investigation into conservation agreements approximately 10 years ago when considering how they could protect tropical forests by using typical forest harvest concession agreements with governments (for example, see the Upper Essequibo Conservation Concession (pdf, 472k) in Guyana). CI currently has over 50 field projects that involve conservation agreements, most of these are for terrestrial conservation projects. Recently, CI has been working within the coastal and marine environments with conservation agreements. CI works primarily with formal, legally-binding agreements that are signed by them, the host-country governments and/or local community governments and organizations. While the agreements may technically be legally-binding, in most cases enforcement through court systems is not practical due to the fragile legal systems within the countries that they are working. Instead, CI relies on a constant stream of benefits deriving from the agreements to encourage governments and communities to continue to abide by the agreement conditions. At least in two cases in the marine environment, CI has used MCAs as mechanisms to establish formal, government-sanctioned Marine Protected Areas. For examples, see the Ecuador and Kiribati field projects.

Ecotourism Companies

Ecotourism companies operate throughout the world and have long since worked with governments and various forms of agreements that allow them access to specific areas for tourism purposes. Tourism activities that are common in the ocean and coastal environments include diving, boating, whale watching, beach access, and education. Some companies work with governments and local communities to establish formal, long-term management agreements and leases over islands and the surrounding waters. The agreements can give companies exclusive use and access to the areas as well as the ability to exclude others from the areas. While the primary goal of many of these efforts is revenue generation, a secondary goal and benefit is ocean and coastal protection. In some cases, revenue generation from ecotourism activities may be a secondary goal and used as the best mechanism to fund the primary goal of ocean and coastal protection. For examples, see the Indonesia 1 and Tanzania field projects.

Locally-Managed Marine Areas

Locally-Managed Marine Areas (LMMAs) began in the mid-1990s as a loose assortment of community-based projects in southeast Asia and the Pacific. The effort has now grown into a formal network and includes hundreds of field projects that follow a more-or-less consistent process. An LMMA is an area of nearshore waters actively being managed by local communities or resource-owning groups, or being collaboratively managed by resident communities with local government and/or partner organizations. An LMMA strategy offers an alternate and complementary approach to the centrally-managed system where a body (such as a national government agency) largely uses “command-and-control” to manage a marine area, often from a remote location. The establishment of an LMMA is normally stewarded by a member of the LMMA Network through an informal agreement with the local community. In some cases, formal agreements between the communities and for-profit companies are also entered into as a means to generate sustainable income for the community. For examples of how formal agreements are used, see the Fiji field projects.

Seacology

Seacology is an international environmental nonprofit organization that focuses on island conservation throughout the world, primarily in tropical locations. Seacology focuses on entering into agreements with local communities in which the communities agree to protect terrestrial and marine/coastal areas in exchange for benefits (such as a community center or patrol boat) provided by Seacology. Seacology's MCA model, which does not rely on extensive scientific inquiries or rigorous planning processes, allows them to act rather quickly to secure initial protection of areas. Local representatives of Seacology are charged with overseeing the long-term commitments of the community.

The Nature Conservancy and Land Trusts

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is a large, environmental non-governmental organization that operates in over 30 countries throughout the world. TNC's roots are in the United States where it began acquiring uplands for protection purposes in the 1950s. In the early 2000s, TNC began investigating the possibility of buying or leasing intertidal or subtidal lands in the United States for conservation purposes. Since that time, TNC has acquired several parcels through purchase or lease. Thus far, most of TNC's work with MCA field projects has been within the United States, focusing on the acquisition of long-term, legal proprietary rights to marine and coastal areas through formal documents that can be enforced in the court systems if need be. In nearly all of the field projects, TNC has taken the lead in implementing the terms of the MCAs and undertaking the conservation actions on sites. The formal MCA model that TNC applies is also used by many coastal land trusts operating throughout the United States and abroad. For examples, see New York and California 1 field projects.

TNC and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) have also used a different variation of MCAs to improve fisheries. In two field projects (see California 3 and Mexico) TNC and WWF have worked with government agencies to buy fishing permits, boats, and gear from individual fishermen and then lease back some of the permits and equipment with restrictions that will decrease the impacts of fishing.

U.S. State Programs

Some ocean coast states within the United States allow private entities to buy or lease public lands for conservation purposes. While in many areas this is typical for private, commercial (non-conservation) purposes, it has not been customary for private, non-profit, conservation purposes, but the situation is changing. Most ocean coast states that allow purchases or leasing for conservation purposes do so on a case-by-case basis under the framework of existing programs. At least two states, however, have developed new programs that provide specific procedures for buying or leasing public lands for conservation purposes (see the Arizona Program and Washington Program).

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